1~\\text{byte} = 8~\\text{bits},\\quad 1~\\text{Mbps} = 10^6~\\text{bits/s} \
T_{\\mathrm{eff}} = T_{\\mathrm{nominal}} \\times (1 - o) \\times (1 - l) \
t = \\frac{S \\times 8}{T_{\\mathrm{eff}}} \
N \\approx \\frac{T_{\\mathrm{eff}}}{R \\times (1 + m)} \
Unit conversions: \\[ 1~\\text{byte} = 8~\\text{bits},\\quad 1~\\text{Mbps} = 10^6~\\text{bits/s} \\] Effective throughput (fractional model): \\[ T_{\\mathrm{eff}} = T_{\\mathrm{nominal}} \\times (1 - o) \\times (1 - l) \\] where \\(o\\) is protocol/medium overhead (0–0.5), \\(l\\) is packet loss fraction (e.g., 0.01 for 1%). Download/Upload time for a file of size \\(S\\) bytes: \\[ t = \\frac{S \\times 8}{T_{\\mathrm{eff}}} \\] Concurrency for an activity requiring \\(R\\) (bits/s): \\[ N \\approx \\frac{T_{\\mathrm{eff}}}{R \\times (1 + m)} \\] with margin \\(m\\) (default 0.25) for variability.